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: Established that each ruler has the right to determine the religion of their state.

: Major powers (Habsburgs vs. France) fought for European hegemony.

: France and Sweden gained significant lands; the independence of the Netherlands and Switzerland was officially recognized. : Established that each ruler has the right

: Albrecht von Wallenstein (Imperial general) and Gustavus Adolphus (King of Sweden).

: Competition for control over trade routes and colonies. II. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) : Established that each ruler has the right

The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) reached its peak under Suleiman the Magnificent but began to struggle against European coalitions like the "Holy League."

: A turning point where Ottoman expansion into Europe was definitively halted. : Established that each ruler has the right

: The struggle between Catholics and Protestants (Reformation vs. Counter-Reformation) became a central driver of European politics.