The loss or gain of one or more chromosomes (e.g., Trisomy 21/Down Syndrome).
Results in two genetically identical daughter cells (somatic growth).
Each individual has two alleles for a trait, which separate during gamete formation so that each gamete carries only one allele.
Genetic principles and cytogenetics provide the framework for understanding how life encodes, replicates, and expresses its instructions. 1. Mendelian Principles (Classical Genetics)
Having extra complete sets of chromosomes (common in plants).
The inheritance of genetic material found in organelles like mitochondria or chloroplasts, which follows a maternal line.
DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins.
Not all genes are "on" at once; cells regulate expression based on environmental signals and developmental stages. 5. Modern Extensions
