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Using stoichiometry and statistics to turn raw data into a meaningful result (like "0.05 mg/L").

These measure electrical properties like potential (volts) or current (amps) as they relate to the concentration of specific ions.

Involves measuring the mass of a product. For example, precipitating a solid out of a solution and weighing it to calculate the original concentration of an element.

Measures the volume of a reagent (titrant) reacting with the sample. This is most commonly seen in acid-base titrations.